Oxford University scientists who were asked to study the welfare of zoo elephants have concluded that their lives in captivity lead to early deaths.
The research was commissioned by the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.
Adult elephants in zoos were found to have half the lifespan of their counterparts in Asian timber camps, where they live up to the age of 60. The RSPCA said the study now showed the conservation arguments for holding elephants in captivity were weak.
The charity is calling for the practice to be phased out.
Dr Rob Atkinson, the RSPCA's head of wildlife, said: "In the vast majority of our zoos, elephant handlers try and dominate by psychological means, physical restriction and punishment. The RSPCA wants their management to be based on reward and for keepers to be protected from death and injury.
"Circus-style displays must also become a thing of the past."
The scientists also said elephants in European zoos were badly treated and suffered a poor diet.
Their report has been published on the Internet at www.rspca.org.uk/elephants
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